Big Bang

For other uses, see Big Bang (disambiguation) and Big Bang Theory (disambiguation).
According to the Big Bang model, the universe expanded from an extremely dense and hot state and continues to expand today. A common analogy explains that space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies with it, like raisins in a rising loaf of bread. The graphic scheme above is an artist's concept illustrating the expansion of a portion of a flat universe.

The Big Bang was an event which led to the formation of the universe, according to the prevailing cosmological theory of the universe's early development (known as the Big Bang theory or Big Bang model). According to the Big Bang model, the universe, originally in an extremely hot and dense state that expanded rapidly, has since cooled by expanding to the present diluted state, and continues to expand today. Based on the best available measurements as of 2010, the original state of the universe existed around 13.7 billion years ago,[1][2] which is often referred to as the time when the Big Bang occurred.[3][4] The theory is the most comprehensive and accurate explanation supported by scientific evidence and observations.[5][6]

Georges Lemaître proposed what became known as the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe, although he called it his "hypothesis of the primeval atom". The framework for the model relies on Albert Einstein's general relativity and on simplifying assumptions (such as homogeneity and isotropy of space). The governing equations had been formulated by Alexander Friedmann. After Edwin Hubble discovered in 1929 that the distances to far away galaxies were generally proportional to their redshifts, as suggested by Lemaître in 1927, this observation was taken to indicate that all very distant galaxies and clusters have an apparent velocity directly away from our vantage point: the farther away, the higher the apparent velocity.[7] If the distance between galaxy clusters is increasing today, everything must have been closer together in the past. This idea has been considered in detail back in time to extreme densities and temperatures,[8][9][10] and large particle accelerators have been built to experiment on and test such conditions, resulting in significant confirmation of the theory, but these accelerators have limited capabilities to probe into such high energy regimes. Without any evidence associated with the earliest instant of the expansion, the Big Bang theory cannot and does not provide any explanation for such an initial condition; rather, it describes and explains the general evolution of the universe since that instant. The observed abundances of the light elements throughout the cosmos closely match the calculated predictions for the formation of these elements from nuclear processes in the rapidly expanding and cooling first minutes of the universe, as logically and quantitatively detailed according to Big Bang nucleosynthesis.

Fred Hoyle is credited with coining the term Big Bang during a 1949 radio broadcast. It is popularly reported that Hoyle, who favored an alternative "steady state" cosmological model, intended this to be pejorative, but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models.[11][12][13] Hoyle later helped considerably in the effort to understand stellar nucleosynthesis, the nuclear pathway for building certain heavier elements from lighter ones. After the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964, and especially when its spectrum (i.e., the amount of radiation measured at each wavelength) sketched out a blackbody curve, most scientists were fairly convinced by the evidence that some Big Bang scenario must have occurred.

Physical cosmology
WMAP 2010.png
Universe · Big Bang
Age of the universe
Timeline of the Big Bang
Ultimate fate of the universe

Contents

Motivation and development

See also: Timeline of cosmology and History of astronomy

The Big Bang theory developed from observations of the structure of the Universe and from theoretical considerations. In 1912 Vesto Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a "spiral nebula" (spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies), and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth. He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact, and indeed at the time it was highly controversial whether or not these nebulae were "island universes" outside our Milky Way.[14][15] Ten years later, Alexander Friedmann, a Russian cosmologist and mathematician, derived the Friedmann equations from Albert Einstein's equations of general relativity, showing that the Universe might be expanding in contrast to the static Universe model advocated by Einstein at that time.[16] In 1924, Edwin Hubble's measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies. Independently deriving Friedmann's equations in 1927, Georges Lemaître, a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest, proposed that the inferred recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the Universe.[17]

In 1931 Lemaître went further and suggested that the evident expansion in forward time required that the Universe contracted backwards in time, and would continue to do so until it could contract no further, bringing all the mass of the Universe into a single point, a "primeval atom" where and when the fabric of time and space comes into existence.[18]

Starting in 1924, Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators, the forerunner of the cosmic distance ladder, using the 100-inch (2,500 mm) Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. This allowed him to estimate distances to galaxies whose redshifts had already been measured, mostly by Slipher. In 1929, Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and recession velocity—now known as Hubble's law.[7][19] Lemaître had already shown that this was expected, given the Cosmological Principle.[20]

Artist's depiction of the WMAP satellite gathering data to help scientists understand the Big Bang

During the 1930s other ideas were proposed as non-standard cosmologies to explain Hubble's observations, including the Milne model,[21] the oscillatory Universe (originally suggested by Friedmann, but advocated by Albert Einstein and Richard Tolman)[22] and Fritz Zwicky's tired light hypothesis.[23]

After World War II, two distinct possibilities emerged. One was Fred Hoyle's steady state model, whereby new matter would be created as the Universe seemed to expand. In this model, the Universe is roughly the same at any point in time.[24] The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory,[notes 1] advocated and developed by George Gamow, who introduced big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN)[25] and whose associates, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB).[26] Ironically, it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître's theory, referring to it as "this big bang idea" during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949.[27][notes 2] For a while, support was split between these two theories. Eventually, the observational evidence, most notably from radio source counts, began to favor the latter. The discovery and confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964[28] secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding the physics of the Universe at earlier and earlier times, and reconciling observations with the basic theory.

Huge strides in Big Bang cosmology have been made since the late 1990s as a result of major advances in telescope technology as well as the analysis of copious data from satellites such as COBE,[29] the Hubble Space Telescope and WMAP.[30] Cosmologists now have fairly precise and accurate measurements of many of the parameters of the Big Bang model, and have made the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the Universe appears to be accelerating.

Overview

Timeline of the Big Bang

Main article: Timeline of the Big Bang

Extrapolation of the expansion of the Universe backwards in time using general relativity yields an infinite density and temperature at a finite time in the past.[31] This singularity signals the breakdown of general relativity. How closely we can extrapolate towards the singularity is debated—certainly not earlier than the Planck epoch. The early hot, dense phase is itself referred to as "the Big Bang",[notes 3] and is considered the "birth" of our Universe. Based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae, measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background, and measurements of the correlation function of galaxies, the Universe has a calculated age of 13.73 ± 0.12 billion years.[32] The agreement of these three independent measurements strongly supports the ΛCDM model that describes in detail the contents of the Universe.

The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation. In the most common models, the Universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with an incredibly high energy density, huge temperatures and pressures, and was very rapidly expanding and cooling. Approximately 10−37 seconds into the expansion, a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation, during which the Universe grew exponentially.[33] After inflation stopped, the Universe consisted of a quark–gluon plasma, as well as all other elementary particles.[34] Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at relativistic speeds, and particle–antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions. At some point an unknown reaction called baryogenesis violated the conservation of baryon number, leading to a very small excess of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and antileptons—of the order of one part in 30 million. This resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the present Universe.[35]

The Universe continued to grow in size and fall in temperature, hence the typical energy of each particle was decreasing. Symmetry breaking phase transitions put the fundamental forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form.[36] After about 10−11 seconds, the picture becomes less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle physics experiments. At about 10−6 seconds, quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons. The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons. The temperature was now no longer high enough to create new proton–antiproton pairs (similarly for neutrons–antineutrons), so a mass annihilation immediately followed, leaving just one in 1010 of the original protons and neutrons, and none of their antiparticles. A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons. After these annihilations, the remaining protons, neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the Universe was dominated by photons (with a minor contribution from neutrinos).

A few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature was about a billion (one thousand million; 109; SI prefix giga-) kelvins and the density was about that of air, neutrons combined with protons to form the Universe's deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis.[37] Most protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei. As the Universe cooled, the rest mass energy density of matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon radiation. After about 379,000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms (mostly hydrogen); hence the radiation decoupled from matter and continued through space largely unimpeded. This relic radiation is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation.[38]

The Hubble Ultra Deep Field showcases galaxies from an ancient era when the Universe was younger, denser, and warmer according to the Big Bang theory.

Over a long period of time, the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, stars, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today. The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the Universe. The three possible types of matter are known as cold dark matter, hot dark matter and baryonic matter. The best measurements available (from WMAP) show that the dominant form of matter in the Universe is cold dark matter. The other two types of matter make up less than 18% of the matter in the Universe.[32]

Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply that the Universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as dark energy, which apparently permeates all of space. The observations suggest 72% of the total energy density of today's Universe is in this form. When the Universe was very young, it was likely infused with dark energy, but with less space and everything closer together, gravity had the upper hand, and it was slowly braking the expansion. But eventually, after numerous billion years of expansion, the growing abundance of dark energy caused the expansion of the Universe to slowly begin to accelerate. Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of the cosmological constant term in Einstein's field equations of general relativity, but its composition and mechanism are unknown and, more generally, the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both observationally and theoretically.[20]

All of this cosmic evolution after the inflationary epoch can be rigorously described and modeled by the ΛCDM model of cosmology, which uses the independent frameworks of quantum mechanics and Einstein's General Relativity. As noted above, there is no well-supported model describing the action prior to 10−15 seconds or so. Apparently a new unified theory of quantum gravitation is needed to break this barrier. Understanding this earliest of eras in the history of the Universe is currently one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics.

Underlying assumptions

The Big Bang theory depends on two major assumptions: the universality of physical laws, and the Cosmological Principle. The cosmological principle states that on large scales the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic.

These ideas were initially taken as postulates, but today there are efforts to test each of them. For example, the first assumption has been tested by observations showing that largest possible deviation of the fine structure constant over much of the age of the Universe is of order 10−5.[39] Also, General Relativity has passed stringent tests on the scale of the solar system and binary stars while extrapolation to cosmological scales has been validated by the empirical successes of various aspects of the Big Bang theory.[notes 4]

If the large-scale Universe appears isotropic as viewed from Earth, the cosmological principle can be derived from the simpler Copernican Principle, which states that there is no preferred (or special) observer or vantage point. To this end, the cosmological principle has been confirmed to a level of 10−5 via observations of the CMB.[notes 5] The Universe has been measured to be homogeneous on the largest scales at the 10% level.[40]

FLRW metric

Main articles: Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric and Metric expansion of space

General relativity describes spacetime by a metric, which determines the distances that separate nearby points. The points, which can be galaxies, stars, or other objects, themselves are specified using a coordinate chart or "grid" that is laid down over all spacetime. The cosmological principle implies that the metric should be homogeneous and isotropic on large scales, which uniquely singles out the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric (FLRW metric). This metric contains a scale factor, which describes how the size of the Universe changes with time. This enables a convenient choice of a coordinate system to be made, called comoving coordinates. In this coordinate system, the grid expands along with the Universe, and objects that are moving only due to the expansion of the Universe remain at fixed points on the grid. While their coordinate distance (comoving distance) remains constant, the physical distance between two such comoving points expands proportionally with the scale factor of the Universe.[41]

The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our Universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space.

Horizons

Main article: Cosmological horizon

An important feature of the Big Bang spacetime is the presence of horizons. Since the Universe has a finite age, and light travels at a finite speed, there may be events in the past whose light has not had time to reach us. This places a limit or a past horizon on the most distant objects that can be observed. Conversely, because space is expanding, and more distant objects are receding ever more quickly, light emitted by us today may never "catch up" to very distant objects. This defines a future horizon, which limits the events in the future that we will be able to influence. The presence of either type of horizon depends on the details of the FLRW model that describes our Universe. Our understanding of the Universe back to very early times suggests that there is a past horizon, though in practice our view is also limited by the opacity of the Universe at early times. So our view cannot extend further backward in time, though the horizon recedes in space. If the expansion of the Universe continues to accelerate, there is a future horizon as well.[42]

Observational evidence

The earliest and most direct kinds of observational evidence are the Hubble-type expansion seen in the redshifts of galaxies, the detailed measurements of the cosmic microwave background, the abundance of light elements (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis), and today also the large scale distribution and apparent evolution of galaxies[43] which are predicted to occur due to gravitational growth of structure in the standard theory. These are sometimes called "the four pillars of the Big Bang theory".[44]

Hubble's law and the expansion of space

Main articles: Hubble's law and metric expansion of space

Observations of distant galaxies and quasars show that these objects are redshifted—the light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths. This can be seen by taking a frequency spectrum of an object and matching the spectroscopic pattern of emission lines or absorption lines corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light. These redshifts are uniformly isotropic, distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions. If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift, the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated. For some galaxies, it is possible to estimate distances via the cosmic distance ladder. When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances, a linear relationship known as Hubble's law is observed:[7]

v = H0D,

where

Hubble's law has two possible explanations. Either we are at the center of an explosion of galaxies—which is untenable given the Copernican Principle—or the Universe is uniformly expanding everywhere. This universal expansion was predicted from general relativity by Alexander Friedman in 1922[16] and Georges Lemaître in 1927,[17] well before Hubble made his 1929 analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang theory as developed by Friedmann, Lemaître, Robertson and Walker.

The theory requires the relation v = HD to hold at all times, where D is the comoving distance, v is the recessional velocity, and v, H, and D vary as the Universe expands (hence we write H0 to denote the present-day Hubble "constant"). For distances much smaller than the size of the observable Universe, the Hubble redshift can be thought of as the Doppler shift corresponding to the recession velocity v. However, the redshift is not a true Doppler shift, but rather the result of the expansion of the Universe between the time the light was emitted and the time that it was detected.[45]

That space is undergoing metric expansion is shown by direct observational evidence of the Cosmological Principle and the Copernican Principle, which together with Hubble's law have no other explanation. Astronomical redshifts are extremely isotropic and homogenous,[7] supporting the Cosmological Principle that the Universe looks the same in all directions, along with much other evidence. If the redshifts were the result of an explosion from a center distant from us, they would not be so similar in different directions.

Measurements of the effects of the cosmic microwave background radiation on the dynamics of distant astrophysical systems in 2000 proved the Copernican Principle, that the Earth is not in a central position, on a cosmological scale.[notes 6] Radiation from the Big Bang was demonstrably warmer at earlier times throughout the Universe. Uniform cooling of the cosmic microwave background over billions of years is explainable only if the Universe is experiencing a metric expansion, and excludes the possibility that we are near the unique center of an explosion.

Cosmic microwave background radiation

Main article: Cosmic microwave background radiation
WMAP image of the cosmic microwave background radiation

During the first few days of the Universe, the Universe was in full thermal equilibrium, with photons being continually emitted and absorbed, giving the radiation a blackbody spectrum. As the Universe expanded, it cooled to a temperature at which photons could no longer be created or destroyed. The temperature was still high enough for electrons and nuclei to remain unbound, however, and photons were constantly "reflected" from these free electrons through a process called Thomson scattering. Because of this repeated scattering, the early Universe was opaque to light.

When the temperature fell to a few thousand Kelvin, electrons and nuclei began to combine to form atoms, a process known as recombination. Since photons scatter infrequently from neutral atoms, radiation decoupled from matter when nearly all the electrons had recombined, at the epoch of last scattering, 379,000 years after the Big Bang. These photons make up the CMB that is observed today, and the observed pattern of fluctuations in the CMB is a direct picture of the Universe at this early epoch. The energy of photons was subsequently redshifted by the expansion of the Universe, which preserved the blackbody spectrum but caused its temperature to fall, meaning that the photons now fall into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The radiation is thought to be observable at every point in the Universe, and comes from all directions with (almost) the same intensity.

In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson accidentally discovered the cosmic background radiation while conducting diagnostic observations using a new microwave receiver owned by Bell Laboratories.[28] Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the general CMB predictions—the radiation was found to be isotropic and consistent with a blackbody spectrum of about 3 K—and it pitched the balance of opinion in favor of the Big Bang hypothesis. Penzias and Wilson were awarded a Nobel Prize for their discovery.

The cosmic microwave background spectrum measured by the FIRAS instrument on the COBE satellite is the most-precisely measured black body spectrum in nature.[46] The data points and error bars on this graph are obscured by the theoretical curve.

In 1989, NASA launched the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite (COBE), and the initial findings, released in 1990, were consistent with the Big Bang's predictions regarding the CMB. COBE found a residual temperature of 2.726 K and in 1992 detected for the first time the fluctuations (anisotropies) in the CMB, at a level of about one part in 105.[29] John C. Mather and George Smoot were awarded Nobels for their leadership in this work. During the following decade, CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground-based and balloon experiments. In 2000–2001, several experiments, most notably BOOMERanG, found the Universe to be almost spatially flat by measuring the typical angular size (the size on the sky) of the anisotropies. (See shape of the Universe.)

In early 2003, the first results of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) were released, yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters. This spacecraft also disproved several specific cosmic inflation models, but the results were consistent with the inflation theory in general,[30] it confirms too that a sea of cosmic neutrinos permeates the Universe, a clear evidence that the first stars took more than a half-billion years to create a cosmic fog. A new space probe named Planck, with goals similar WMAP, was launched in May 2009. It is anticipated to soon provide even more accurate measurements of the CMB anisotropies. Many other ground- and balloon-based experiments are also currently running; see Cosmic microwave background experiments.

The background radiation is exceptionally smooth, which presented a problem in that conventional expansion would mean that photons coming from opposite directions in the sky were coming from regions that had never been in contact with each other. The leading explanation for this far reaching equilibrium is that the Universe had a brief period of rapid exponential expansion, called inflation. This would have the effect of driving apart regions that had been in equilibrium, so that all the observable Universe was from the same equilibrated region.

Abundance of primordial elements

Main article: Big Bang nucleosynthesis

Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the concentration of helium-4, helium-3, deuterium and lithium-7 in the Universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen, H.[37] All the abundances depend on a single parameter, the ratio of photons to baryons, which itself can be calculated independently from the detailed structure of CMB fluctuations. The ratios predicted (by mass, not by number) are about 0.25 for 4He/H, about 10−3 for 2H/H, about 10−4 for 3He/H and about 10−9 for 7Li/H.[37]

The measured abundances all agree at least roughly with those predicted from a single value of the baryon-to-photon ratio. The agreement is excellent for deuterium, close but formally discrepant for 4He, and a factor of two off for 7Li; in the latter two cases there are substantial systematic uncertainties. Nonetheless, the general consistency with abundances predicted by BBN is strong evidence for the Big Bang, as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements, and it is virtually impossible to "tune" the Big Bang to produce much more or less than 20–30% helium.[47] Indeed there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that, for example, the young Universe (i.e., before star formation, as determined by studying matter supposedly free of stellar nucleosynthesis products) should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than 3He, and in constant ratios, too.

Galactic evolution and distribution

Main articles: Large-scale structure of the cosmos, Structure formation, and Galaxy formation and evolution
This panoramic view of the entire near-infrared sky reveals the distribution of galaxies beyond the Milky Way. The galaxies are color coded by redshift.

Detailed observations of the morphology and distribution of galaxies and quasars provide strong evidence for the Big Bang. A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed about a billion years after the Big Bang, and since then larger structures have been forming, such as galaxy clusters and superclusters. Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early Universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state). Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang. These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model. Observations of star formation, galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the Universe and are helping to complete details of the theory.[48][49]

Other lines of evidence

After some controversy, the age of Universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in good agreement with (i.e., slightly larger than) the ages of the oldest stars, both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars.

The prediction that the CMB temperature was higher in the past has been experimentally supported by observations of temperature-sensitive emission lines in gas clouds at high redshift. This prediction also implies that the amplitude of the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies does not depend directly on redshift; this seems to be roughly true, but unfortunately the amplitude does depend on cluster properties which do change substantially over cosmic time, so a precise test is impossible.

Features, issues and problems

While scientists now prefer the Big Bang model over other cosmological models, the scientific community was once divided between supporters of the Big Bang and those of alternative cosmological models. Throughout the historical development of the subject, problems with the Big Bang theory were posed in the context of a scientific controversy regarding which model could best describe the cosmological observations. With the overwhelming consensus in the community today supporting the Big Bang model, many of these problems are remembered as being mainly of historical interest; the solutions to them have been obtained either through modifications to the theory or as the result of better observations.

The core ideas of the Big Bang—the expansion, the early hot state, the formation of helium, the formation of galaxies—are derived from many observations that are independent from any cosmological model; these include the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background, large scale structure, and the Hubble diagram for Type Ia supernovae.

Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics. Of these features, dark matter is currently the subject to the most active laboratory investigations.[50] Remaining issues, such as the cuspy halo problem and the dwarf galaxy problem of cold dark matter, are not fatal to the dark matter explanation as solutions to such problems exist which involve only further refinements of the theory. Dark energy is also an area of intense interest for scientists, but it is not clear whether direct detection of dark energy will be possible.[51]

On the other hand, inflation and baryogenesis remain somewhat more speculative features of current Big Bang models: they explain important features of the early universe, but could be replaced by alternative ideas without affecting the rest of the theory.[notes 7] Discovering the correct explanations for such phenomena are some of the remaining unsolved problems in physics.

Horizon problem

The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel faster than light. In a Universe of finite age, this sets a limit—the particle horizon—on the separation of any two regions of space that are in causal contact.[52] The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard: if the Universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering, the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky. There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature.

A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by inflationary theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the Universe at some very early period (before baryogenesis). During inflation, the Universe undergoes exponential expansion, and the particle horizon expands much more rapidly than previously assumed, so that regions presently on opposite sides of the observable Universe are well inside each other's particle horizon. The observed isotropy of the CMB then follows from the fact that this larger region was in causal contact before the beginning of inflation.

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be quantum thermal fluctuations, which would be magnified to cosmic scale. These fluctuations serve as the seeds of all current structure in the Universe. Inflation predicts that the primordial fluctuations are nearly scale invariant and Gaussian, which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB.

If inflation occurred, exponential expansion would push large regions of space well beyond our observable horizon.

Flatness/oldness problem

The overall geometry of the Universe is determined by whether the Omega cosmological parameter is less than, equal to or greater than 1. Shown from top to bottom are a closed Universe with positive curvature, a hyperbolic Universe with negative curvature and a flat Universe with zero curvature.

The flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is an observational problem associated with a Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric.[52] The Universe may have positive, negative or zero spatial curvature depending on its total energy density. Curvature is negative if its density is less than the critical density, positive if greater, and zero at the critical density, in which case space is said to be flat. The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time, and yet the Universe today remains very close to flat.[notes 8] Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time, 10−43 seconds, the fact that the Universe has reached neither a Heat Death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires some explanation. For instance, even at the relatively late age of a few minutes (the time of nucleosynthesis), the Universe density must have been within one part in 1014 of its critical value, or it would not exist as it does today.[53]

A resolution to this problem is offered by inflationary theory. During the inflationary period, spacetime expanded to such an extent that its curvature would have been smoothed out. Thus, it is theorized that inflation drove the Universe to a very nearly spatially flat state, with almost exactly the critical density.

Magnetic monopoles

Main article: Magnetic monopole

The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s. Grand unification theories predicted topological defects in space that would manifest as magnetic monopoles. These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early Universe, resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations, given that searches have never found any monopoles. This problem is also resolved by cosmic inflation, which removes all point defects from the observable Universe in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness.[52]

A resolution to the horizon, flatness, and magnetic monopole problems alternative to cosmic inflation is offered by the Weyl curvature hypothesis.[54][55]

Baryon asymmetry

It is not yet understood why the Universe has more matter than antimatter.[35] It is generally assumed that when the Universe was young and very hot, it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of baryons and antibaryons. However, observations suggest that the Universe, including its most distant parts, is made almost entirely of matter. An unknown process called "baryogenesis" created the asymmetry. For baryogenesis to occur, the Sakharov conditions must be satisfied. These require that baryon number is not conserved, that C-symmetry and CP-symmetry are violated and that the Universe depart from thermodynamic equilibrium.[56] All these conditions occur in the Standard Model, but the effect is not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry.

Globular cluster age

In the mid-1990s, observations of globular clusters appeared to be inconsistent with the Big Bang. Computer simulations that matched the observations of the stellar populations of globular clusters suggested that they were about 15 billion years old, which conflicted with the 13.7 billion year age of the Universe. This issue was generally resolved in the late 1990s when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to stellar winds, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters.[57] There still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured, but it is clear that these objects are some of the oldest in the Universe.

Dark matter

Main article: Dark matter
A pie chart indicating the proportional composition of different energy-density components of the Universe, according to the best ΛCDM model fits – roughly 95% is in the exotic forms of dark matter and dark energy

During the 1970s and 1980s, various observations showed that there is not sufficient visible matter in the Universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the Universe is dark matter that does not emit light or interact with normal baryonic matter. In addition, the assumption that the Universe is mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations. In particular, the Universe today is far more lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter was initially controversial, it is now indicated by numerous observations: the anisotropies in the CMB, galaxy cluster velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, gravitational lensing studies, and X-ray measurements of galaxy clusters.[58]

The evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter, and no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories. Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed, and several projects to detect them directly are underway.[59]

Dark energy

Main article: Dark energy

Measurements of the redshift–magnitude relation for type Ia supernovae indicate that the expansion of the Universe has been accelerating since the Universe was about half its present age. To explain this acceleration, general relativity requires that much of the energy in the Universe consists of a component with large negative pressure, dubbed "dark energy". Dark energy is indicated by several other lines of evidence. Measurements of the cosmic microwave background indicate that the Universe is very nearly spatially flat, and therefore according to general relativity the Universe must have almost exactly the critical density of mass/energy. But the mass density of the Universe can be measured from its gravitational clustering, and is found to have only about 30% of the critical density.[20] Since dark energy does not cluster in the usual way it is the best explanation for the "missing" energy density. Dark energy is also required by two geometrical measures of the overall curvature of the Universe, one using the frequency of gravitational lenses, and the other using the characteristic pattern of the large-scale structure as a cosmic ruler.

Negative pressure is a property of vacuum energy, but the exact nature of dark energy remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Possible candidates include a cosmological constant and quintessence. Results from the WMAP team in 2008, which combined data from the CMB and other sources, indicate that the Universe today is 72% dark energy, 23% dark matter, 4.6% regular matter and less than 1% neutrinos.[32] The energy density in matter decreases with the expansion of the Universe, but the dark energy density remains constant (or nearly so) as the Universe expands. Therefore matter made up a larger fraction of the total energy of the Universe in the past than it does today, but its fractional contribution will fall in the far future as dark energy becomes even more dominant.

In the ΛCDM, the best current model of the Big Bang, dark energy is explained by the presence of a cosmological constant in the general theory of relativity. However, the size of the constant that properly explains dark energy is surprisingly small relative to naive estimates based on ideas about quantum gravity. Distinguishing between the cosmological constant and other explanations of dark energy is an active area of current research.

The future according to the Big Bang theory

Main article: Ultimate fate of the Universe

Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the Universe. If the mass density of the Universe were greater than the critical density, then the Universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state that was similar to that in which it started—a Big Crunch.[42] Alternatively, if the density in the Universe were equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down, but never stop. Star formation would cease as all the interstellar gas in each galaxy is consumed; stars would burn out leaving white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. Very gradually, collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes. The average temperature of the Universe would asymptotically approach absolute zero—a Big Freeze. Moreover, if the proton were unstable, then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes. Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation. The entropy of the Universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death.

Modern observations of accelerated expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible Universe will pass beyond our event horizon and out of contact with us. The eventual result is not known. The ΛCDM model of the Universe contains dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant. This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems, such as galaxies, would remain together, and they too would be subject to heat death, as the Universe expands and cools. Other explanations of dark energy—so-called phantom energy theories—suggest that ultimately galaxy clusters, stars, planets, atoms, nuclei and matter itself will be torn apart by the ever-increasing expansion in a so-called Big Rip.[60]

Speculative physics beyond Big Bang theory

This is an artist's concept of the Universe expansion, where space (including hypothetical non-observable portions of the Universe) is represented at each time by the circular sections. Note on the left the dramatic expansion (not to scale) occurring in the inflationary epoch, and at the center the expansion acceleration. The scheme is decorated with WMAP images on the left and with the representation of stars at the appropriate level of development.
Image from WMAP press release, 2006

While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology, it is likely to be refined in the future. Little is known about the earliest moments of the Universe's history. The Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems require the existence of a singularity at the beginning of cosmic time. However, these theorems assume that general relativity is correct, but general relativity must break down before the Universe reaches the Planck temperature, and a correct treatment of quantum gravity may avoid the singularity.[61]

Some proposals, each of which entails untested hypotheses, are:

Proposals in the last two categories see the Big Bang as an event in a much larger and older Universe, or multiverse, and not the literal beginning.

Religious interpretations

The Big Bang is a scientific theory, and as such is dependent on its agreement with observations. But as a theory which addresses the origins of reality, it has always carried theological and philosophical implications. In the 1920s and 1930s almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal steady state Universe, and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady state theory.[70] This perception was enhanced by the fact that the originator of the Big Bang theory, Monsignor Georges Lemaître, was a Roman Catholic priest.[71] Pope Pius XII, declared at the November 22, 1951 opening meeting of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences that the Big Bang theory accorded with the Catholic concept of creation.[72]

Since the acceptance of the Big Bang as the dominant physical cosmological paradigm, there have been a variety of reactions by religious groups as to its implications for their respective religious cosmologies. Some accept the scientific evidence at face value, while others seek to reconcile the Big Bang with their religious tenets, and others completely reject or ignore the evidence for the Big Bang theory.[73]

Notes

  1. ↑ Lemaître termed the event the "big noise". Astrophysicist Fred Hoyle, who disliked the idea, designated the creation event "Big Bang", which he considered to be an ugly name. See Op. cit. Ferris 1988, p. 211, 436, citing The Los Angeles Times. January 12, 1933. 
  2. ↑ It is commonly reported that Hoyle intended this to be pejorative. However, Hoyle later denied that, saying that it was just a striking image meant to emphasize the difference between the two theories for radio listeners. See chapter 9 of The Alchemy of the Heavens by Ken Croswell, Anchor Books, 1995.
  3. ↑ There is no consensus about how long the Big Bang phase lasted. For some writers this denotes only the initial singularity, for others the whole history of the Universe. Usually, at least the first few minutes (during which helium is synthesized) are said to occur "during the Big Bang".
  4. ↑ Detailed information of and references for tests of general relativity are given at Tests of general relativity.
  5. ↑ This ignores the dipole anisotropy at a level of 0.1% due to the peculiar velocity of the solar system through the radiation field.
  6. ↑ Astronomers reported their measurement in a paper published in the December 2000 issue of Nature titled The microwave background temperature at the redshift of 2.33771 which can be read here. A press release from the European Southern Observatory explains the findings to the public.
  7. ↑ If inflation is true, baryogenesis must have occurred, but not vice versa.
  8. ↑ Strictly, dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant drives the Universe towards a flat state; however, our Universe remained close to flat for several billion years, before the dark energy density became significant.

References

  1. ↑ Komatsu, E.; Dunkley, J.; Nolta, M. R.; Bennett, C. L.; Gold, B.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; Larson, D. et al. (2009). "Five-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Observations: Cosmological Interpretation". Astrophysical Journal Supplement 180: 330. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/180/2/330. Bibcode: 2009ApJS..180..330K. 
  2. ↑ Menegoni, Eloisa et al. (2009). "New constraints on variations of the fine structure constant from CMB anisotropies". Physical Review D 80 (8): 087302. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.80.087302. http://arxiv.org/abs/0909.3584 
  3. ↑ The Exploratorium (2000). "Origins: CERN: Ideas: The Big Bang". http://www.exploratorium.edu/origins/cern/ideas/bang.html. Retrieved 2010-09-03. 
  4. ↑ Jonathan Keohane (November 08, 1997). "Big Bang theory". NASA's Imagine the Universe: Ask an astrophysicist.. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/971108a.html. Retrieved 2010-09-03. 
  5. ↑ Feuerbacher, B.; Scranton, R. (25 January 2006). "Evidence for the Big Bang". TalkOrigins. http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/astronomy/bigbang.html#evidence. Retrieved 2009-10-16. 
  6. ↑ Wright, E.L. (9 May 2009). "What is the evidence for the Big Bang?". Frequently Asked Questions in Cosmology. UCLA, Division of Astronomy and Astrophysics. http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmology_faq.html#BBevidence. Retrieved 2009-10-16. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Hubble, E. (1929). "A Relation Between Distance and Radial Velocity Among Extra-Galactic Nebulae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 15 (3): 168–73. doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168. PMID 16577160. PMC 522427. http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/debate/1996/hub_1929.html. 
  8. ↑ Gibson, C.H. (21 January 2001). "The First Turbulent Mixing and Combustion". IUTAM Turbulent Mixing and Combustion. http://sdcc3.ucsd.edu/~ir118/GibsonAbstract.pdf. 
  9. ↑ Gibson, C.H. (2001). "Turbulence And Mixing In The Early Universe". arΧiv:astro-ph/0110012 [astro-ph]. 
  10. ↑ Gibson, C.H. (2005). "The First Turbulent Combustion". arΧiv:astro-ph/0501416 [astro-ph]. 
  11. ↑ "'Big bang' astronomer dies". BBC News. 22 August 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1503721.stm. Retrieved 2008-12-07. 
  12. ↑ Croswell, K. (1995). "Chapter 9". The Alchemy of the Heavens. Anchor Books. 
  13. ↑ Mitton, S. (2005). Fred Hoyle: A Life in Science. Aurum Press. p. 127. 
  14. ↑ Slipher, V.M. "The Radial Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula". Lowell Observatory Bulletin 1: 56–57. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913LowOB...2...56S. 
  15. ↑ Slipher, V.M. "Spectrographic Observations of Nebulae". Popular Astronomy 23: 21–24. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1915PA.....23Q..21S. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Friedman, A.A. (1922). "Über die Krümmung des Raumes". Zeitschrift für Physik 10: 377–386. doi:10.1007/BF01332580.  (German)
    (English translation in: Friedman, A. (1999). "On the Curvature of Space". General Relativity and Gravitation 31: 1991–2000. doi:10.1023/A:1026751225741. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999GReGr..31.1991F. )
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Lemaître, G. (1927). "Un univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extragalactiques". Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels 47A: 41.  (French)
    (Translated in: "A Homogeneous Universe of Constant Mass and Growing Radius Accounting for the Radial Velocity of Extragalactic Nebulae". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 91: 483–490. 1931. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931MNRAS..91..483L. )
  18. ↑ Lemaître, G. (1931). "The Evolution of the Universe: Discussion". Nature 128: 699–701. doi:10.1038/128704a0. 
  19. ↑ Christianson, E. (1995). Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae. New York (NY): Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0374146608. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Peebles, P.J.E.; Ratra, Bharat (2003). "The Cosmological Constant and Dark Energy". Reviews of Modern Physics 75: 559–606. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.559. arXiv:astro-ph/0207347. 
  21. ↑ Milne, E.A. (1935). Relativity, Gravitation and World Structure. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press. LCCN 35-19093. 
  22. ↑ Tolman, R.C. (1934). Relativity, Thermodynamics, and Cosmology. Oxford (UK): Clarendon Press. LCCN 34-32023. 
    Reissued (1987). New York (NY): Dover Publications ISBN 0-486-65383-8.
  23. ↑ Zwicky, F. (1929). "On the Red Shift of Spectral Lines through Interstellar Space". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 15 (10): 773–779. doi:10.1073/pnas.15.10.773. PMID 16577237. PMC 522555. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?1929PNAS...15..773Z.  Full articlePDF (672 KB).
  24. ↑ Hoyle, F. (1948). "A New Model for the Expanding Universe". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 108: 372. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948MNRAS.108..372H. 
  25. ↑ Alpher, R.A.; Gamow, G.; Gamow, G. (1948). "The Origin of Chemical Elements". Physical Review 73: 803. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.73.803. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948PhRv...73..803A. 
  26. ↑ Alpher, R.A. (1948). "Evolution of the Universe". Nature 162: 774. doi:10.1045/march2004-featured.collection. 
  27. ↑ Singh, S. "Big Bang". http://www.simonsingh.net/Big_Bang.html. Retrieved 2007-05-28. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Penzias, A.A.; Wilson, R. W. (1965). "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s". Astrophysical Journal 142: 419. doi:10.1086/148307. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965ApJ...142..419P. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Boggess, N.W., et al.; Mather, J. C.; Weiss, R.; Bennett, C. L.; Cheng, E. S.; Dwek, E.; Gulkis, S.; Hauser, M. G. et al. (1992). "The COBE Mission: Its Design and Performance Two Years after the launch". Astrophysical Journal 397: 420. doi:10.1086/171797. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Spergel, D.N., et al. (2006). Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Three Year Results: Implications for Cosmology. The Journal of Business. http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0603449v2. Retrieved 2007-05-27. 
  31. ↑ Hawking, S.W.; Ellis, G.F.R. (1973). The Large-Scale Structure of Space-Time. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20016-4. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Hinshaw, G., et al. (2008). "Five-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Data Processing, Sky Maps, and Basic Results" (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/map/dr3/pub_papers/fiveyear/basic_results/wmap5basic.pdf. 
  33. ↑ Guth, A.H. (1998). The Inflationary Universe: Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0099959502. 
  34. ↑ Schewe, P. (2005). "An Ocean of Quarks". Physics News Update (American Institute of Physics) 728 (1). http://www.aip.org/pnu/2005/split/728-1.html. Retrieved 2007-05-27. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Kolb and Turner (1988), chapter 6
  36. ↑ Kolb and Turner (1988), chapter 7
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Kolb and Turner (1988), chapter 4
  38. ↑ Peacock (1999), chapter 9
  39. ↑ Ivanchik, A.V. (1999). "The Fine-Structure Constant: A New Observational Limit on Its Cosmological Variation and Some Theoretical Consequences". Astronomy and Astrophysics 343: 459. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999A%26A...343..439I. 
  40. ↑ Goodman, J. (1995). "Geocentrism Reexamined". Physical Review D 52: 1821. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.52.1821. 
  41. ↑ d'Inverno, R. (1992). "Chapter 23". Introducing Einstein's Relativity. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-859686-3. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Kolb and Turner (1988), chapter 3
  43. ↑ Gladders, M.D., et al.; Yee, H. K. C.; Majumdar, Subhabrata; Barrientos, L. Felipe; Hoekstra, Henk; Hall, Patrick B.; Infante, Leopoldo (2007). "Cosmological Constraints from the Red-Sequence Cluster Survey". The Astrophysical Journal 655 (1): 128–134. doi:10.1086/509909. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ApJ...655..128G. 
  44. ↑ The Four Pillars of the Standard Cosmology
  45. ↑ Peacock (1999), chapter 3
  46. ↑ White, M. (1999). "Anisotropies in the CMB". Proceedings of the Los Angeles Meeting, DPF 99. UCLA. arXiv:astro-ph/9903232. Bibcode: 1999dpf..conf.....W. 
  47. ↑ Steigman, G. (2005). Primordial Nucleosynthesis: Successes And Challenges. arXiv:astro-ph/0511534. 
  48. ↑ Bertschinger, E. (2001). Cosmological Perturbation Theory and Structure Formation. arXiv:astro-ph/0101009. 
  49. ↑ Bertschinger, E. (1998). "Simulations of Structure Formation in the Universe". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 36: 599–654. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599. http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146%2Fannurev.astro.36.1.599. 
  50. ↑ Direct Searches for Dark Matter, White paper, The National Academies.
  51. ↑ Whitepaper: For a Comprehensive Space-Based Dark Energy Mission, The National Academies.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 Kolb and Turner (1988), chapter 8
  53. ↑ Dicke, R.H.; Peebles, P.J.E. "The big bang cosmology—enigmas and nostrums". In Hawking, S.W. (ed); Israel, W. (ed). General Relativity: an Einstein centenary survey. Cambridge University Press. pp. 504–517. 
  54. ↑ Penrose, R. (1979). "Singularities and Time-Asymmetry". In Hawking, S.W. (ed); Israel, W. (ed). General Relativity: An Einstein Centenary Survey. Cambridge University Press. pp. 581–638. 
  55. ↑ Penrose, R. (1989). "Difficulties with Inflationary Cosmology". In Fergus, E.J. (ed). Proceedings of the 14th Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics. New York Academy of Sciences. pp. 249–264. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1989.tb50513.x. 
  56. ↑ Sakharov, A.D. (1967). "Violation of CP Invariance, C Asymmetry and Baryon Asymmetry of the Universe". Zhurnal Eksperimentalnoi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki, Pisma 5: 32.  (Russian)
    (Translated in Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics Letters 5, 24 (1967).)
  57. ↑ Navabi, A.A.; Riazi, Nematollah (2003). "Is the Age Problem Resolved?". Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy 24: 3. doi:10.1007/BF03012187. 
  58. ↑ Keel, B. "Dark Matter". http://www.astr.ua.edu/keel/galaxies/darkmatter.html. Retrieved 2007-05-28. 
  59. ↑ Yao, W.M., et al. (2006). "Review of Particle Physics". Journal of Physics G 33: 1–1232. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001.  Chapter 22: Dark matterPDF (152 KB).
  60. ↑ Caldwell, R.R; Kamionkowski, Marc; Weinberg, Nevin N. (2003). "Phantom Energy and Cosmic Doomsday". Physical Review Letters 91: 071301. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.071301. arXiv:astro-ph/0302506. 
  61. ↑ Hawking, S.W.; Ellis, G.F.R. (1973). The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-09906-4. 
  62. ↑ Hartle, J.H.; Hawking, S. (1983). "Wave Function of the Universe". Physical Review D 28: 2960. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.28.2960. 
  63. ↑ Langlois, D. (2002). Brane Cosmology: An Introduction. arXiv:hep-th/0209261. 
  64. ↑ Linde, A. (2002). Inflationary Theory versus Ekpyrotic/Cyclic Scenario. arXiv:hep-th/0205259. 
  65. ↑ Than, K. (2006). "Recycled Universe: Theory Could Solve Cosmic Mystery". Space.com. http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060508_mm_cyclic_universe.html. Retrieved 2007-07-03. 
  66. ↑ Kennedy, B.K. (2007). "What Happened Before the Big Bang?". http://www.science.psu.edu/alert/Bojowald6-2007.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-03. 
  67. ↑ Linde, A. (1986). "Eternal Chaotic Inflation". Modern Physics Letters A1: 81. 
  68. ↑ Linde, A. (1986). "Eternally Existing Self-Reproducing Chaotic Inflationary Universe". Physics Letters B 175: 395–400. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(86)90611-8. 
  69. ↑ Khoury1, J.; Ovrut, B. A.; Seiberg, N.; Steinhardt, P. J.; Turok, N. (2002). "From big crunch to big bang". Physical Review D 65 (8): 086007. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.65.086007. 
  70. ↑ Kragh, H. (1996). Cosmology and Controversy. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02623-8. 
  71. ↑ People and Discoveries: Big Bang Theory, www.pbs.org
  72. ↑ Ferris, Timothy (1988). Coming of age in the Milky Way. Morrow. pp. 274, 438. ISBN 9780688058890. http://books.google.com/?id=a8nuAAAAMAAJ. , citing Berger, André (1984). The Big bang and Georges Lemaître: proceedings of a symposium in honour of G. Lemaître fifty years after his initiation of big-bang cosmology, Louvainla-Neuve, Belgium, 10-13 October 1983. D. Reidel Pub. Co.. p. 387. ISBN 9789027718488. http://books.google.com/?id=eYHvAAAAMAAJ. 
  73. ↑ Wright, E.L (24 May 2009). "Cosmology and Religion". Ned Wright's Cosmology Tutorial. http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmo-religion.html. Retrieved 2009-10-15. 

Books

Further reading

For an annotated list of textbooks and monographs, see physical cosmology.

External links

Timeline of the Big Bang
Augustinian era · Big Bang · Planck epoch · Grand unification epoch · Electroweak epoch (Inflationary epoch, Reheating, Baryogenesis) · Quark epoch · Hadron epoch · Lepton epoch · Photon epoch (Big Bang nucleosynthesis, Matter domination, Recombination) · Dark ages · Reionization
See also: Graphical timeline of the Big Bang